Post Structuralism Phenomenology Concepts in Architecture

Post Structuralism Phenomenology Concepts in computer architecture1. Post-structuralismPost-structuralism is a progression of earlier movement resulted by the work of a Swiss linguist, Ferdinand De Saussure in the 1910s and 1920s called Structuralism. The latter was influenced by semiotics (a study of signs). tally to Saussure, a language is a system of signs made up of a signifier (an acoustic-image) and a signified (a concept).1 Structuralism is understood as how the system flora to anatomical structure their individual elements to imply a meaning.Post-structuralism is oftentimes interchangeably linked with postmodernism and deconstruction in general, as all these movements respond to structuralisms philosophy of language but they apply those insights to a wider range of topics and radicalize some of the structuralisms premises. 2 The consideration of computer architecture as communication while recognizing its running(a)ity came during the Modernism era, which revolves arou nd the universal form and the principle of form follows function phrased by American architect, Louis Sullivan. Modern architects believed the functions of diagrammatic objects would be transparent, or obvious to everyone.3 However, the text, The Lesson of the Toilet Bowl, has taught us that it is finished learning that human knows how to use a form.Charles Jencks and Peter Eisenman both opposed the former movement in post-modernism and deconstruction respectively. Jencks sees communication as the main problem of modernism as modern architects abandoned the traditional language of architecture and tried to foundation functional buildings. Post-modernism is characterized as double-coding4, highlighting multivalent, unlike modern architecture which was criticized as univalent in terms of form. While modern architecture strives to create new, independent works of art, postmodern architecture embraced diversity with the merge of intellects, styles, and characters to promote parody, h umor and irony. Deconstruction, on the other hand, challenges the values of harmony, unity, and stability, and proposing instead a different view of a structure that the flaws are intrinsic to the structure.5 Deconstructivist rejects the presence of metaphysics, as well as the function, scale, and context. 6In terms of design process within the discipline of architecture, structuralism revolves around the idea of binary, hierarchical, and structural thinking for example, black cannot be white and vice versa. Whereas in poststructuralism, French philosopher, Gilles Deleuze (1925-95) collaborated with the psychoanalyst, Flix Guattari (1930-92) introduced the concept of rhizome inA Thousand Plateaus (1980). A rhizome has no beginning or end it is always in the middle, between things, interbeing, intermezzo.7 The term rhizome promotes connective thinking in which post-structuralists criticized the reductive and that phenomena in truth occurs in a more multifarious manner. There are in b etweens and tangents and ambiguous non-binary associations. Post-structuralists approach argues that to understand an object, it is necessary to study both the object itself and the systems of acquaintance that produced the object.2. PhenomenologyPhenomenology is a philosophical movement or approach which was inaugurated by a German philosopher, Edmund Husserl (1859-1938) during the 1800s. In architecture, the term phenomenology is the study of the essence of human consciousness through the subjective experience of phenomena. architectural phenomenology acknowledged the importance of human experience as part of architecture also referred as a return of lived experience.8 This system promotes the integration of human sensory and perception as part of built form to create an architectural and experiential space that is beyond tangible, but kind of abstract, observed and perceived.One of the key approaches in phenomenology converse was shaped by the thought of Martin Heidegger wher e he defines the meaning of Bauen (building) as to dwell, the latter simply means creating a sense of quality space within the building, providing the sense of feeling being at home to build is in itself already to dwell. However, dwelling does not inescapably occur in every building or typologies.9It was later then, the Heideggers philosophy becomes influential among a go of architectural theorists, namely, Christian Norberg-Schulz, a Norwegian architectural theorist, who was among the first to attempt to translate phenomenological approach into architecture. Schulz argues that the perception is inseparable from our preexisting knowledge about the things we perceive. Our perception is actually a result of our previous experiences. This infers that every individuals perception is very subjective to their experiences and thus, asserted as a limiting factor to the phenomenological approach.In the architecture of today, people give too much of charge on the visual image (appearance ) that the reality of how a building an experience has been neglected as mentioned by Finnish architect, Juhani Pallasmaa, who explored this notion in his work titled, The Geometry of sense (1985). Pallasmaa phrases that, the artistic dimension of a work of art does not lie in the actual physical thing it exists only in the consciousness of the mortal experiencing it.10This statement enables us to think thoroughly that we do not only design a building as its physical form, and it is the images and feelings in other words, the design aims to achieve emotions/ experiences. A phenomenological concept in architectural design strategies to develop a unique experience by taking account of phenomena factors like space, light, and form. architecture aims to provide to human needs and therefore, it is essential that a great design considers the relation of human senses with built form in order to create a rich experience that unfolds over time and gives a memorable impact for users.113. supposition and PracticeEvery now and then, we see theories overlap and developed from criticism, judgment, descriptive or interpretation on specific existing works. Consequently, this provides alternative solutions based on observations of the current state of the discipline, or offers new thought paradigms for approaching the issues.12 The discourse of architectural theory and practice began after the Renaissance period when the Art of Building in Ten applys, which closely modeled Vitruviuswork was published by Alberti.13 According to Korydon smith in Introducing Architectural supposition, he defined architectural theory asthe evolution of the objective principles and subjective values that guide individual and joint decisions about, and assessments of ones own and othersarchitectural works.14Based on the definition, we can infer theories in architecture appear to be subjective and rather more individualistic and collective paradigms as everyone relatively do not share the sam e opinions or visual languages.His work also introduced the concept of the dialectic in particular, a dialogue. It arises as a dichotomy, a debate between two opposing positions, ideas, or theories (thesis and antithesis) but, through the desire to reconcile (synthesis) the debate, results in proposition. The dialectic, as such, is popularly known as Fichtean dialectics by Kants philosophies. The idea of dialectic is to be said a process using reasoning to ascertain what the truth could be.The discourse of theoretical within the discipline of architecture focuses on the relationship between theory and practice with two very distinct views revolving on the necessity of theory to practice effectively. For Bernard Tschumi, he argues that Architecture is not an illustrative art it does not illustrate theories whereas, Vittorio Gregotti insists on theoretical research as a direct foundation of action in architectural design.15 hypothesis within the practice is resolved to be inevitable as quoted by Iain Borden, Theory is indispensable. It is how we make sense of the world.16 The Oxford philosophy professor John Alexander Smith phrasedThe real gain from studying philosophy is not in learning about the views of great philosophers but in understanding their arguments and in acquiring sanction in ones ability to think critically, by thinking through these arguments.17From this statement inferences the relation of theory and practice where two have to evolve simultaneously. Dialectics are often present within the discipline of architecture design and practice, as a process of making incremental, though interrelated, decisions.18 The theoretical dissertation has hugely contributed a number of architectural works today which helps to stimulate people to apply critical thinking in theory and practice and thus, the cycle repeats.Bibliography1) Book Bibliography.Macey, David. The Penguin Dictionary of hypercritical Theory capital of the United Kingdom Penguin Group, 2000. 2) Book Chapter Bibliography.L. Fastiggi, Robert. Post-Structuralism. In New Catholic Encyclopedia accoutrement 2012-13 Ethic and school of thought, Volume 3. Detroit Gale Cengage Learning in association with the Catholic University of America, 2013.3) Book Chapter Bibliography.Jencks, Charles. The Architectural Sign. In Signs, Symbols, and Architecture. New York Wiley, 1980.4) Book Chapter Bibliography.Jencks, Charles. The Paradoxical World of Post-Modernism. In Movements in twentieth Century Architecture, Ed. Michael J. Ostwald. Sydney Arcadia Press / University of Newcastle, Faculty of Architecture, Building and Design, 2000.5) Book Chapter Bibliography.Wigley, Mark. Deconstructivist Architecture. In Movements in Twentieth Century Architecture, Ed. Michael J. Ostwald. Sydney Arcadia Press / University of Newcastle, Faculty of Architecture, Building and Design, 2000.5) Book Bibliography.Mitrovi, Branko. Philosophy for Architects. New York Princeton Architectural Press, 2011.6) B ook Chapter Bibliography.Deleuze, Gilles, and Guattari, Felix.Introduction Rhizome. In A Thousand Plateaus. London Continuum, 2010.7) Book Chapter Bibliography.Heidegger, Martin. Building Dwelling, thinking Part One. In Rethinking Architecture A Reader in Cultural Theory, Ed. Neil Leach. London Routledge, 1997.8) Book Chapter Bibliography.Pallasmaa, Juhani. The Geometry of Feeling A heart at the Phenomenology of Architecture. In Theorizing A New Agenda for Architecture An Anthology of Architectural Theory 1965-1995, Ed. Kate Nesbitt New York Princeton Architectural Press, 1996.9)Peter Zumthor. The Hard Core of Beauty. In Thinking Architecture, Second, expanded edition. Basel - Boston - Berlin Birkhuser Publishers for Architecture.10) Book Chapter Bibliography.Nesbitt, Kate. Introduction. In Theorizing A New Agenda for Architecture An Anthology of Architectural Theory 1965-1995, Ed. Kate Nesbitt. New York Princeton Architectural Press, 1996.11) Book Bibliography.Smith, Korydon. In troducing Architectural Theory, Ed. Korydon Smith. New York Routledge, 2012.12) Book Chapter Bibliography.Borden, Iain and Rendall, Jane. Introduction. In Intersections Architectural Histories and Critical Theories. London Routledge, 2000.1 David Macey, structuralism, in The Penguin Dictionary of Critical Theory (London Penguin Group, 2000) 364.2 Robert L. Fastiggi, Post-Structuralism., in New Catholic Encyclopedia Supplement 2012-13 Ethic and Philosophy, Volume 3 (Detroit Gale Cengage Learning in association with the Catholic University of America, 2013) 1245.3 Charles Jencks, The Architectural Sign, in Broadbent, Bunt, and Jencks (eds.) Signs, Symbols, and Architecture (New York Wiley, 1980) 83-85.4 Charles Jencks, The Paradoxical World of Post-Modernism, in Movements in Twentieth Century Architecture, ed. Michael J. Ostwald (Sydney Arcadia Press / University of Newcastle, Faculty of Architecture, Building and Design, 2000) 116-118.5 Mark Wigley, Deconstructivist Architecture, in Movements in Twentieth Century Architecture, ed. Michael J. Ostwald (Sydney Arcadia Press / University of Newcastle, Faculty of Architecture, Building and Design, 2000) 182-1876 Branko Mitrovi, Architecture and Deconstruction, in Philosophy for Architects (New York Princeton Architectural Press, 2011) 162-1637 Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari, Introduction Rhizome, in A Thousand Plateaus (London Continuum, 2010) 23-24 27-28.8 David Macey, phenomenology, in The Penguin Dictionary of Critical Theory (London Penguin Group, 2000) 297-299.9 Martin Heidegger, Building Dwelling, Thinking Part One, in Rethinking Architecture A Reader in Cultural Theory, ed. Neil Leach (London Routledge, 1997) 100-103.10 Juhani Pallasmaa. The Geometry of Feeling A Look at the Phenomenology of Architecture, in Theorizing A New Agenda for Architecture An Anthology of Architectural Theory 1965-1995, ed. Kate Nesbitt (New York Princeton Architectural Press, 1996) 448-45311 Peter Zumthor, The Hard Core of Beauty , in Thinking Architecture, Second, expanded edition (Basel - Boston - Berlin Birkhuser Publishers for Architecture) 7-812 Kate Nesbitt, Introduction, in Theorizing A New Agenda for Architecture An Anthology of Architectural Theory 1965-1995, ed. Kate Nesbitt (New York Princeton Architectural Press, 1996) 1613 Korydon Smith, Introduction To Students Why Architectural Theory is Vital, in Introducing Architectural Theory, ed. Korydon Smith (New York Routledge, 2012) 5.14 Korydon Smith, Introduction To Students Why Architectural Theory is Vital, in Introducing Architectural Theory, ed. Korydon Smith (New York Routledge, 2012) 6.15 Nesbitt, Introduction, in Theorizing A New Agenda for Architecture (New York Princeton Architectural Press, 1996) 1916 Iain Borden and Jane Rendall, Introduction in Intersections Architectural Histories and Critical Theories (London Routledge, 2000) 6.17 Branko Mitrovic, Preface, in Philosophy for Architects. (New York Princeton Architectural Press,2011) 12. 18 Smith, Debating a Discipline Architecture, Argument, and the Concept of the Dialectic, in Introducing Architectural Theory (New York Routledge, 2012) 10.

Effects of Transition on Child Stress

Effects of Transition on Child StressUsing evidence, write an essay showing how tense is influenced at the levels of the individual, family, locality and society. Chose one preventive at one of the levels and say why you think it could be effective in tackling the problem.This essay looks at how adjudicate is influenced at many levels individual, family, locality and society, and concentrates on the level of family, to describe an intervention that could be effective in tackling the problem. As Finlay et al. (2005 p. 141), stress is something that e actuallybody experiences at some microscope stage in their life, from children to adults, although excessive amounts of stress roll in the hay be harmful for individuals in terms of their health and longevity. It is therefore important that the causes of long-term stress be place and that interventions ar utilized in order to minimize the adverse effects of this stress. As Finlay et al. (2005 p. 29-31) point out, however, stress discharge down many causes, from individual factors, to family concerns, to out slope factors from the individuals environment (locality) to societal-level factors, both of which can lead to an individual experiencing stress. This can make it difficult to isolate one intervention that could be effective the remainder of the essay will, however, describe a case study and will highlight one intervention that might be effective in this case.The fussy example that will be used is that of a primary-aged child who is showing signs of stress. The child is manifesting behavioural changes, such as disturbed sleep and mood swings, and is experiencing headaches and bolshy of appetite, all of which are classic signs of childhood stress (Flinn, 1999). The child is the youngest child of a two-child family, and has and started primary school. His parents both work full-time and they are seldom in the house. The family does not eat together. The childs older brother is a teenager, and is goi ng through exams at the moment. He himself is also showing signs of stress, and all the trig time the parents have, they spend with their oldest child, helping him cope with his exams. It is clear that the youngest child is being neglected emotionally, at a time when he needs support, having just moved to full-time school. There are many stressors on this child, which can be addressed through some simple interventions, which will be discussed below.A recent study (Turner-Cobb, 2008) shows that, in particular, periods of transition in childhood can be extremely stressful for children. Studies have suggested that stress can be anticipate by children, which can lead to deep anxiety (Primary Report, 2007). As shown by Flinn (1999), untreated stress in childhood can have long-term health effects, such as adverse developmental effects (McEwen, 2008) and increased mortality (McEwen, 2003). In addition, childhood stress can lead to social problems, such as inadequate familial relationshi ps, and behavioural disorders as a result of this (McEwen, 2003 Alfven et al., 2008 Flinn, 1995). As Flinn and England (1997) show, supported by Bauer and Boyce (2004), these social problems can then lead, in later life, to socio-economic problems caused by long-term health concerns.As (Finlay et al., 2005 p.64) state, Family relationships have both a positive and a negative effect on health behaviours and health. As suggested, the insufficiency of family meals, where the whole family sits down to eat can disrupt the parent-children relationship, and can lead to stress being put on the children, who rule they do not have a regular point of contact with their parent(s), breaking the facility for communication with their parent(s) (Finlay et al., 2005 p.64). This certainly seems to be the case here, where the parents work full-time and have little spare time to spend quality time with their child. As (Finlay et al., 2005 p.70) suggest, the changing roles within families have put str ess on the family, with both parents working meaning that the children are less likely to see their parents for extended periods of time, leading to a greater need for independence at an earlier age and, also, potentially leading to poor health behaviours in the children and to higher levels of stress in these children.What can be done, what intervention can be suggested, to help this child? Given that the child is young, very young, and is going through a stressful period in his life at the moment, with the transition to full-time school, and that the child is being neglected, emotionally, by his parents, the suggested intervention is that the family seek to sit down together at all mealtimes. This would give the family an opportunity to be together and would allow the child time to settle down with his parents and to experience comfortable enough to be able to tell them about his worries and his concerns. As shown by Arnold (1990), it is often enough for a child to be given the lacuna to talk for the child to feel less stressed, and to recover from the symptoms of stress they were suffering.This intervention is expected to be effective in that it would allow connections to be made once again between the child and his parents, and his brother, allowing some repair of the disrupted parent-child relationship (Finlay et al., 2005 p. 64). The need for families to have a space (both physical and temporal) where they can be together is paramount, in terms of allowing each family member to interact with each other, allowing them to discuss their worries and concerns and allowing, to some extent, the stressors to be relaxed. This is especially important for a young child who needs to feel protected. Without the protection of their families, their parents, young children can begin to feel vulnerable, with this vulnerability allowing for stressful events to have a far greater negative effect than usual on their responses to stress (Arnold, 1990). By sitting down to gether as a family, by talking and being listened to, the child can externalize his worries and, once shared, these worries can be dealt with in the most appropriate ways. Indeed, recent studies have shown that families who eat meals together have children who are more emotionally healthy than those families who do not eat together (Fivush and Duke, 2005 Duke et al., 2004).In summary, the suggested intervention in this case is to sit down together, as a family, to eat together. It is important to realize that such an intervention can have major effects on the sense of belonging a child has, which, in turn, can reduce their sense of vulnerability and can increase their ability to deal with stressful situations, and to avoid suffering from stress. This type of interaction can also lead to greater levels of family cohesiveness and resilience, having the beneficial side effect of contributing to a general reduction in family-level stressors.ReferencesAlfven, G. et al. (2008). Stressor, perceived stress and recurrent pain in Swedish schoolchildren. Journal of Psychosomatic investigate 65(4), pp. 381-387.Arnold, E.L. (1990). Childhood Stress. John Wiley Sons.Bauer, A.W. and Boyce, T. (2004) Prophecies of childhood how childrens social environments and biological propensities affect the health of populations. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine 11(3), pp. 164-175.Duke, M.P. et al. (2004). Of ketchup and kin dinnertime conversations as a major source of family knowledge, family adjustment and family resilience. The Emory Centre for Myth and Ritual in American Life, Working Paper 26, available from http//www.marial.emory.edu/pdfs/Duke_Fivush027-03.pdf Accessed on 3rd October 2008.Finlay, L. et al. (2005). sympathy Health. The Open University.Fivush, R. et al. (2004). Family narratives and the development of childrens emotional well-being. In Family stories and life course, Pratt, M.W. and Fiese, B.H. (eds.), Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Flinn, M.V. (1995). Ch ildhood stress and family environment. Current Anthropology 36(5), pp. 181-187.Flinn, M.V. and England, B. G. (1997). Social economics of childhood glucocorticoid stress response and health. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 102(1), pp. 33-53.Flinn, M.V. (1999). Family environment, stress and health during childhood. In Hormones, Health and Behaviour, Panter-Brick, C. and Worthman, C.M. (eds.), Cambridge University Press.McEwen, B.S. (2003). Early life influences on life-long patterns of behaviour and health. Mental Retardation and Developmental Disability query canvass 9(3), pp.149-154.McEwen, B.S. (2008). Understanding the potency of stressful early life experiences on brain and body function. Metabolism 57(2), pp. 11-15.Primary Report (2007). Community Soundings The Primary Review regional witness sessions. Available from http//news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/12_10_2007primary.pdf Accessed on 3rd October 2008.Turner-Cobb, J. (2008). Childrens transition to school. P reliminary results available from http//www.bath.ac.uk/schooltransition/homeresults Accessed 3rd October 2008.

Neurobiology of Harmony :: Biology Essays Research Papers

Neurobiology of Harmony How sound waves produced by instruments become sensible representations in the brain, and how the perceptions become meaningful atomic number 18 interesting questions for neurobiology to ask, as well as necessary ones if knowledge of the brain is to account for all behavior. The brain is able to discern union because the inner pinnule is capable of differentiating between different frequencies. The brains differentiation between pitches and chords corresponds to the physical, real, differences between notes and chords, although our sense of music built from perception of harmonies through time, is more subjective and variable. Our faculty of audience derives from the anatomy of the inner atrial auricle and the brain, as well as from the existence of external stimuli in the outside world. Sound is both the mechanical energy of waves and the headliner produced by receptors in the brain (1). Each wave has an amplitude and a frequency. The amplitude of a vib ration corresponds to its volume and is measured by decibels on a logarithmic scale. Frequency is logarithmic, as well, but corresponds to differences in pitch. Greater frequency results in a higher pitch. Mathematically, pitch is represented as the number of vibrations per punt (1) (2) . Vertebrates hear sound through their neurobiological makeup. The ears tympanic membrane, or eardrum, vibrates as a result of being subjected to sound waves. The waves then travel to the inner ear or cochlea which is the site of sounds transduction into chemical energy. Within the cochlea, sound waves travel through fluid which stimulates the stereocilia, small hair-like projections of hair cells along the basilar membrane. The actions of the stereocilia cause the release of K+, potentially depolarizing the cell (1). The flexibility of the basilar membrane allows stereocilia to resettlement back and forth in response to the waves in the Cochlear fluid. Each stereocilium is linked to some other th rough structures called tip links (1) , (3) As the stereocilia move towards the tallest ones, the tip links cause ion channels to open, depolarizing the cell and allowing free K+ to move into the cell (1). Importantly, the stereocilia move in direct response to the sound waves and are cumulative rather than spiking. Neurotransmitter release corresponds to the frequency and amplitude (pitch and volume) of a sound input. Sounds must be sufficiently loud and within a given range in order to cause action potentials. Different sounds will produce different outputs, allowing for discrimination of harmony on a neural level (1).

Free Essay: Metamorphosis of Dimmesdale in Nathaniel Hawthornes The Scarlet Letter :: Scarlet Letter essays

The Metamorphosis of Dimmesdale in red-faced Letter   In The Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne, there atomic number 18 many characters that transform one of them is Reverend Arthur Dimmesdale. Dimmesdale committed a great sin of the puritan society, he slept with some other mans wife and Hester Prynne became pregnant. Hester was punished for her sin but Arthur Dimmesdale had non admitted to it, so he lives with this guilt and it is much worst for him because he is a puritan minister. Dimmesdale inflicts punishment upon himself because of his adulterate sin. Dimmesdale transforms throughout the novel always in the same place The Scaffold.   The town is all out to witness the punishment of Hester Prynne some of the women are suggesting other punishments and the women are telling us about Hester and Dimmesdale. People say, said another, that the Reverend Master Dimmesdale, her divine pastor, takes it very grievously to heart that such a s potbellydal should pull in come upon his congregation. (Page 49) Reverend Dimmesdale is seen as a godly man. A man who does not commit sin and in his own mind at this advert he feels fine and does not have any guilt. Dimmesdale at this point in the novel is seen as godly and throughout the novel is seen as godly even at the end after the last scaffold scene. Consequently enough, Dimmesdale is trying to convince Hester to reveal the man who has sinned along with her , so the man can be relieved of his guilt, some what ironic because he is the man who has sinned along side with her. What can thy silence do for him, except it tempt him--yea, compel him, as it were--to add hypocrisy to sin? Heaven hath granted thee an open ignominy, that thereby thou mayest work out an open triumph over the evil at heart thee and the sorrow without. Take heed how thou deniest to him--who, perchance, hath not the courage to grasp it for himself--the bitter, but wholesome, cup that is now presented to thy lips (Page 65) This is t he first scaffold scene Reverend Arthur Dimmesdale is not showing any signs of guilt at this point, he is still fairly the same and has not began to inflict punishment on himself or so it appears. Dimmesdale in the first scaffold scene seems fairly normal and has not begun to transform himself but by the next time we see him at the scaffold he is taken a turn for the worst.

Outside the Law: Women Criminals in Arizona History :: Essays Papers

Outside the Law Women Criminals in Arizona History th gawkyout history, men and women have often been stereotyped into specific roles. manpower have frequently been characterized as being more forceful and violent than their womanish counterparts. Men have also often been portrayed as adventurous pioneers while women were considered to be more frail and delicate. Nowhere has this stereotype been more prevalent than in Arizona history. In the years before statehood, Arizonas reputation as part of the Wild West was legendary. From stagecoach robberies and saloon fights to the shootout at Tombstone, the early years of the Arizona territory be filled with stories of the good, the braggart(a), and the ugly. Of course, most of these stories involve the men of Arizona history. Men were typically cast both as the mysterious bad guys who robbed the stage, and as the noble sheriffs who struggled to uphold the law. Women, when they were remembered at all, were most frequently cast as virtuous pioneer women, struggling to retain femininity in the rough Arizona frontier, or as wanton saloon women with few redeeming characteristics. As can be expected, however, most of these stereotypes of women in Arizona history are sorely misguided. It is true that women in the nineteenth century were expected to abide by certain standards of womanhood. According to Paul Knepper in his article, The Women of Yuma Gender, Ethnicity, and Imprisonment in term Arizona, 1876-1909, these standards were ...the cardinal virtues of submissiveness, piety, purity, and domesticity (241). Women in the Arizona territory had the doubly difficult duty of being expected to abide by these standards of womanhood while simultaneously competitiveness an undeveloped territory where any signs of weakness were shunned. There was a group of women in nineteenth century Arizona who did not fit this stereotype of female passivity and decorum. These were women who, for one reason or another, bro ke the law and were branded as criminals. Some of these women broke the law deliberately with shocking disregard to ain life or property. Others broke the law reluctantly, only trying to feed themselves or their families. Yet others were victims of an unfair morality bias against women. When they were punished for their crimes, some of them acquire leniency from the court based on their gender, while others were made to suffer horrible indignities because the system had no place for women criminals.

Baseball :: essays research papers

, cricket played a role in the evolution of organized base ballock. From this British game came umpires and innings, and early baseball writers like henry Chadwick used cricket terminology such as "batsman," "playing for the side," and "excellent field" in describing early baseball games. Likewise, the pioneer baseball innovator blight Wright, a cricket professional turned baseball manager, drew heavily on his cricket background in promoting baseball as a professional team sport in the United States. By the 1840s various forms of baseball vied for acceptance, including the popular Massachusetts and New York versions of the game. The Massachusetts game utilized an irregular multilateral field of play, with the four bases located at fixed, asymmetrical distances from each other and the "strikers," or batters position away from the home base. "Sc turn ups," or fielders, put men out by fielding a batted ball on the fly or on the first bounce, or by hitting a runner with a thrown ball. But this lively version of the game was overshadowed in the late 1840s by the "New York game," a popular version of which was devised by the members of the New York Knickerbocker Club. organise in 1845 by a band of aspiring gentlemen and baseball enthusiasts, the Knickerbocker version was devised by one of their members, Alexander J. Cartwright. Cartwright prescribed a diamond-shaped infield with bases at 90 feet apart, a standard which has stood the test of time. The pitching distance was set at forty-five feet from the home base, and a pitcher was required to "pitch" a ball in a stiff-armed, underhanded fashion. The three-strikes-are-out rule was adopted, and a batter could also be put out by a fielder catching a batted ball in the air, or on the first bounce, or by throwing a fielded ball to the first baseman before the runner arrived.

Alcohol Advertising: The Cause of Underage Drinking? Essay -- essays

Alcohol Advertising The Cause of Underage Drinking?The question, Is inebriant advertisement the cause of underage swallow? seems to flow through the minds of many American families. The answer to the question largely depends upon the families view on drinking in general. near homes encourage drinking every once in a while, for social purposes while others condemn it all together. The content is very controversial with several factors calculation in such as religion, family background, and health. Despite the differing views, statistics lead shown that underage drinking has reached a new height this past year. What is the cause of this rise in callow drinking? I will be reviewing the work of four different authors in an attempt to answer this question.Dina Berta grew up with alcohol in her home and believes that alcohol is a partition of American life, and is a normal accompaniment to most social events. She said, Most Americans enjoy drinking on a regular basis. She feels t hat Americans argon too uptight and that drinking socially, even underage, is not a trouble. George Hacker and Robyn Suriano disagree with her and they feel that underage drinking has become a serious problem and that children are drinking more heavily at a younger age. Suriano states, alcohol is the most abused drug in the coun stress, and the number of children trying strong beverages before they reach 18 has doubled in the past decade. Hacker agrees with this point by giving the statistic that 4.1 million kids younger than 18 tried alcohol in the year 2000. Hacker also states his belief that when the youth drink, they drink heavily and excessively. Suriano and Hacker both agree that the cause of excessive underage drinking is advertisements.The subject of alcohol advertisements negative effects on the behaviors of young people is very diverse. Most liquor and beer companies agree with Berta that the purpose of alcohol advertisings is to encourage drinkers to try new brands, not to promote excessive drinking. Hacker states, despite the intent of the industry, research shows that alcohol advertising does influence young people. He strongly disagrees with Berta, stating that the advertisements have a negative effect. It preprograms them to drink and drink excessively for a good time. ... ...ge drinking and she gives a list of recommendations that all parents should go by in gild to alleviate the problem.The opinions of these four authors prove that alcohol advertising is an extremely controversial topic. When questioning Americans youth, you will get varied responses, similar to the contrasted opinions of the authors. Some homes side with Dina Berta and Jon Kate, while others agree more with Robyn Suriano and George Hacker. Alcohol industries see eye to eye with Berta and Kate. Berta feels advertising is fine and that drinking is a normal part of American culture. Kate feels that there is a problem with underage drinking but that advertisements are not th e cause. Robyn Suriano and George Hacker feel underage drinking is a extended problem and action needs to take place in order to reduce underage drinking. Hacker blames advertisements while Suriano feels the problem stems from both advertisements and the family. As shown, the topic is very debatable, depending largely on personal upbringing and experiences. Hence, the question still remains, Are alcohol advertisements the cause of underage drinking?